Baby Bed Time

However, it has been my experience that all types of learners find visual aids helpful, even f they are Just used as supplemental information to enhance the knowledge they gained through verbal communication. Visual aids, such as process flow charts, are excellent tools to effectuate meaningful and clear communication. According to Webb (2013), â€Å"Sometimes it's more effective to visualize something graphically that it is to describe it with words. That is the essence of what flowcharts do for you.Flowcharts explain a process clearly through symbols and text† (Top 5 Reasons to use Flow Charts). Baby Bed-Time Comment on the factors that affect the process design. The three major factors that affect the process design are dependent upon the 1) the daily activities that the children engaged in, 2) the condition of their skin prior to bath-time and 3) the time their father arrives home from work. If the children have been outside playing or Interacting with others, they have be en exposed to harmful germs and bacteria.In this case, the children would need to be thoroughly washed, including their hair. Many days the children don't leave the house due to the fact of Ewing cared for by a nanny, therefore an extensive cleansing is not always necessary. However, of the children attend a play date, doctor's appointment, trip to the grocery store, etc. Then it is necessary to be thoroughly scrubbed down with She Naturals Baby Body Wash, otherwise they may Just take a bubble bath with good old Johnny's Baby Wash.Both my children have eczema and occasionally experience breakouts to their skin depending on what they have been exposed to. It seems to be especially bad during the winter months. On the days when their skin is irritated, showing symptoms of exams, I pay extra attention during bath time. I oatmeal and She Naturals Baby Body Wash in their bath water and I wash their skin with a gentle sponge. This factor also adds time to dressing them after their bath be cause I have to saturate their skin by massaging in She Naturals Baby Exams Cream.The final are very unpredictable. He works 6 days a week and on any given night he can cone home anywhere between 7 to elm. The children usually try to stay up to see him before they â€Å"allow themselves† to fall asleep. If he arrives home at a decent time and the children are still awake, they get a chance to spend time with him after he has oaken his shower. When this happens I am able to get some homework done and he reads to the children before bed. Identify at least one metric to measure the process.According to Collins (2013): â€Å"Quality metrics are commonly used by organizations as a way to measure the performance of internal processes —specifically, processes which are difficult to measure. The most common type of quality metric is called a Key Performance Indicator (KIP). Kips are used to quantify and measure and/or gauge the performance of operational goals that are connec ted to internal processes† (How To Measure Quality Metrics). In order to quantify the process flow chart, it is important to assign quality metrics to measure each stage of the process.These metrics allow the user to measure the effectiveness of the process and the efficiency of each step. As the purpose of this flow chart is to increase efficiency and process time, the most optimal production metric to use would be cycle time. According to Specific (2010), â€Å"Cycle time is the measurement of elapsed time. Cycle time can be measured at the individual operational level or across the entire production process† (Using Effective Metrics to Measure Production Test Flow). Each entry of the process flow chart's efficiency can be evaluated by measuring the cycle time for each step.

An Examination of Relationship Between Anxiety and Insomnia

Anxiety is commonly associated with insomnia. Many research have been done in this area. The results of the previous research studies often revealed strong relationships between anxiety and insomnia. Often, anxiety and insomnia can be frequently associated with depression. This research study was conducted among Hunter College students in order to investigate a relationship between anxiety and insomnia. There were 22 students participating in the research, between ages 18 and 34. Twelve of them were males and ten were females. There was a multiple-choice questionnaire, adapted from other research studies, with four possible answers from 0 – not at all bothered to 3 – severely bothered. The obtained results fully supported the hypothesis that there is a significant positive correlation between anxiety and insomnia. The higher is anxiety level, the higher is insomnia level. Nevertheless, the research had its own limitations, and further modifications of a research design could be done in this area of study. An Examination of a Relationship Between Anxiety and Insomnia Anxiety is commonly associated with insomnia. A number of research studies in this area support the idea that insomnia and anxiety have common mechanisms that underlie or maintain these difficulties (Fairholme, 2012). Some studies investigate the association between anxiety, depression and insomnia, which often co-occur at the same time (Jansson-Frojmark, 2008). However, the question about cause-effect in this relationship between anxiety and insomnia still remains. In his article, Pacana (2010) stated that the anxiety disorders became the most common mental disorders in the United States. Nineteen percent of the population suffers from these afflictions every year. There are six major types of anxiety – Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Phobias, Social Anxiety, Panic Disorder, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. Approximately one fifth of individuals seek treatment for these disorders. The estimated coast of anxiety disorders in the country is about 50 billion dollars in any given year. Pacan (2010) also wrote, that anxiety is a â€Å"product â€Å" of the central nervous system’s physiological and emotional response to ambiguous sense of fear or threat. Anxiety may appear even when there is no presence of actual life or health threats. Sometimes, anxiety can be so overwhelming and exhausting that it becomes a threat itself after a while. An Anxiety Disorder develops after the anxiety becomes severe, easy to trigger, occurs too frequent, or stays for too long. According to Pacan (2010), an anxiety is difficult to describe or measure. Luckily, psychologists have a number of tools for assessing a person’s level of anxiety. A Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) is one of the methods administered by Aaron Beck. It’s a 21question multiple-choice questionnaire that measures an individual’s anxiety level. There are four possible answers for each question scored from 0 (NO not at all) to 3 (YES and I could barely stand it). Each answer indicates the emotional state of an individual in the last week, expressed as common symptoms of anxiety (such as unsteadiness, wobbliness, nervousness, or difficulty in breathing, etc. ). The cumulative scores range from 0 to 63, which measure the anxiety level. The higher the score is, the more severe is the anxiety level. The higher scores indicate that an individual may have very serious and health-threating implications, like sleep disturbance or more severe form of sleep deprivation – insomnia. Jansson (2007) indicated that insomnia is another prevalent condition in the population of the United States and worldwide. The prevalence of insomnia ranges from nine to twelve percent in adulthood. Generally, insomnia is viewed as a persistent condition and defined as number of intertwined conditions, such as difficulty getting to sleep at bedtime, waking up too early in the morning, not getting enough sleep at night, etc. Individuals experiencing insomnia also complain about negative daytime symptoms, like distress or impairment in social, or other vital areas of functioning. According to Bogan (2007), insomnia is associated with significant health-related consequences. The estimated healthcare coast of insomnia in the United States is approximately 14 billion dollars. People with abnormal sleep are more likely to experience anxiety and depression and suffer other serious consequences, like drug or alcohol abuse and an increased incidence of medical and psychiatric disorders. Unfortunately, severe insomnia may cause driving-related accidents and an overall increase in mortality rate. Although there are many factors that can contribute to sleeping disturbance, one of the most known is Anxiety. Buckner (2008) stated that insomnia is commonly associated with anxiety, and that sleep quality impairments, such as insomnia, can constitute a significant risk factor for development of anxiety disorders. The study used bivariate correlations to examine a relationship between social anxiety and insomnia in the undergraduate students. There was an association found between social anxiety and sleep dissatisfaction, sleep-related functional impairment, perception of a sleep problem to others, and distress about sleep problems. Jansson-Frojmark (2008) conducted research study about bidirectional relationship between anxiety and depression and insomnia. The revealed results indicate that anxiety and insomnia are significantly inter-correlated. The study used bidirectional correlation to demonstrate the relationship between anxiety and depression separately, and then their relationship with insomnia, using a prospective design in the general population. Although the research showed the bidirectional interrelationship between anxiety, depression and insomnia, the question about cause-effect relationship, where anxiety and depression influence insomnia, or vise versa, still remains. In 2012, Fairhome conducted research study about emotional disorders, insomnia, and common factors that underlie or maintain these difficulties. The results supported a hypothesis that common mechanisms are involved for emotional disorders and insomnia. One of the factors that may explain these mechanisms is anxiety sensitivity (AS). AS might function as a mechanism for the maintenance of sleep deprivation in order of anxiety and mood disorders. Anxiety sensitivity is a fear of anxiety-related sensations, which has been theorized as a heritable risk factor involved in development and maintenance of emotional disorders. For instance, an individual can believe that racing heart will cause a heart attack or that temporal loss of a sense of reality will transform into insanity. That is, an individual’s faulty beliefs of the danger of emotional disorders or sleep disturbance may increase physical symptoms of anxiety or insomnia, or both. The aim of this research study is to examine the relationship between anxiety and insomnia among college students. It was hypothesized that there will be a positive correlation between anxiety and insomnia, that the higher is an anxiety level the higher is an insomnia level. Method Participants A convenience sample of Hunter College students was used. There were 22 participants (N = 22) voluntarily participating in the research study, from the ages of 18 to 34 years old, with an average age of 21 (SD = 3. 28). There were twelve males (54. 5%) and ten females (45. %) of different demographic backgrounds, living mostly in the city of Manhattan or the other four boroughs of New York City. All of the participants were randomly selected and were proposed to participate in the research. Materials A questionnaire form was used to collect the data (See Appendix). Twenty questions about anxiety were adapted from Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) (Beck, 1988), and 20 questions about insomnia were a dapted from Pittsburg Insomnia Rating Scale (PIRS) administered by Moul, D. E. and other researchers in their preliminary study of the test-retest reliability and concurrent validities of the PIRS in 2002. There are 66 questions (For example, â€Å"Consider the quality of your sleep in the last week: Difficulty getting to sleep at bedtime†) multiple-choice questionnaire with four possible answers for each question (For example 0 – Not at all bothered; 1 – Slightly bothered; 2 – Moderately bothered; 3 – Severely bothered) (Moul, 2002). The ordered response options for the questions were adapted from PIRS (Moul, 2002). For the answers for each of 40 questions the Likert scale was used from zero to three (0 – Not at all bothered, 1 – Slightly bothered, 2 – Moderately bothered, 3 – Severely bothered). I went to the third floor of the Hunter College (695 Park Ave building), during the fall 2012 semester and started asking passing by students to participate in my research. Each participant received a consent form and a self-report questionnaire. They were asked to fill in questionnaire about factors that influence good sleep patterns. The participants were told to finish all 40 questions by filling in the numbers that best corresponded to their opinion about each item. After the data was collected, the cumulative scores for anxiety and insomnia were counted for each participant, and the data were collected in an excel file. Then the SPSS program was run in order to organize and interpret the raw data. Results A total number of 22 participants (N = 22, SD = 3. 28) participated in the research. Ten of them were females (45. 5%) and twelve were males (54. 5%), with an average age of 21 (36. 4%), a variance of 10. 7, and a range of 16. The youngest participant was 18 years old, and the eldest was 34 years old (See Table 1). The mean anxiety score was 15. 95 (SD = 10. 55), with a range of 40. A mean score for insomnia was 24. 27 (SD = 15. 63), with a range of 54. The minimum scores for anxiety and insomnia were zero and five, and the maximum scores were 40 and 59. To determine whether there was a significant positive correlation between anxiety and insomnia, the Pearson’s Correlation test was conducted. There was a significant correlation obtained for anxiety and insomnia, r (22) = . 74, p < . 01 (See Table 2). Discussion The obtained results fully support the hypothesis that there is a relationship between anxiety and insomnia. The results indicate that the relationship between anxiety and insomnia is strong and positive (See Figure 1), meaning that anxiety and insomnia levels change in the same direction. For instance, when the anxiety level goes up, the insomnia level goes up too. Generally speaking, the association between anxiety and insomnia indicates that individuals who are vulnerable to stress and other emotional disturbances are more likely to experience sleep deprivation at normal sleep time hours. Individuals who suffer from bad night sleep are more likely to feel anxious the next day. In this research the minimum score of zero for anxiety (See Table 1) indicates that at least one participant did not fill in any number other than zero within the anxiety questions in the questionnaire. However, the minimum score of five within the insomnia questions means that all of the participants experienced insomnia at the time of conducting research. All of that could probably have different explanation for student’s insomnia. It could be caused by something other than anxiety, like a physical problem, or loud neighborhood, etc. The student could simply not be honest about his or her anxiety, filling in zeros for every anxiety question. The results that were obtained in this research study are very similar to the results from previous research studies about anxiety and insomnia relationships, which were mentioned above (Buckner, J. D. , 2008, Fairhokme, C. P. , 2012, Jansson-Frojmark, M. , 2008, and Jansson, M. , 2007). In the Fairholme (2012) research it was discussed that individuals with anxiety sensitivity have a fear that their sleeping problems are related to some kind of health problem, which can make the individuals even more anxious and more likely to acquire serious disorders, like chronic insomnia. In this case a situation becomes a vicious circle. An individual gets more anxious because cannot sleep well at night, and he or she gets problems with falling asleep because he or she is too anxious about whole situation. It is possible that some of the students from our research have AS, which affected their good sleep patterns. This research results do not show any evidence for cause-effect relationship between anxiety and insomnia, though. It is hard to say whether anxiety causes insomnia, or the other way around, or whether anxiety and insomnia cause each other. It is hard to draw serious conclusions about what actually caused insomnia and anxiety in the observed students in this research study. It is also hard to say if participants had anxiety, or depression, or both due to the lack of possibility to differentiate anxiety from depression in this research. Sometimes anxiety and depression have the same symptoms, and that could have resulted in some errors in the questionnaire in this research. In the Jansson-Frojmark (2008) research study it was stated that relationship between anxiety and depression and insomnia is inter-correlated. Moreover, it was said that these three factors could simply co-occur in some cases. For example, an individual suffers from anxiety, which makes him or her experience insomnia, and whole that situation makes an individual be depressed. In this study, the combination of anxiety, depression and insomnia could be present conditions for some or for all of the participants. Although we cannot approve a cause-effect relationship between anxiety and insomnia, it is essential to say that sleep quality impairments can serve as a significant factor for anxiety disorders development or vice versa. According to Buckner research study (2008) individuals with history of insomnia are at greater risk for the later emergence of an anxiety disorder. When an individual had bad night sleep, he or she can feel weak, disorganized, tired, or simply he or she can feel moody or even mad. If the individual experiences the same problems over and over again for a long-term period, he or she can develop a fear from experiencing problems with sleep. For example, â€Å"I am so afraid I will not be able to fall asleep tonight again, and that makes me so anxious. After a while, that fear of insomnia can be transformed into an anxiety disorder. In this research a maximum score for insomnia is 59, comparing to anxiety maximum score of 40 can indicate that on average insomnia occurs in bigger degree than anxiety in these participants. That could possibly mean that insomnia in the participants was associated with factors other than anxiety during the time of conducting the study. For example, a partic ipant has a snoring roommate, or there is construction outside making an annoying noise early in the morning. In this case, without talking to each participant individually, it is impossible to conclude what was a real reason for the sleep disturbance, and for how long a participant has been experiencing it. There are few possible limitations of this research study, like a small size of a sample, specific population – Hunter College students, and lack of access to information about participants. The convenient sample size is not quiet enough for generalizing the obtained results. Twenty-two participants cannot fully reflect the real situation regarding relationship between anxiety and insomnia. Small sample in this research could lead to getting a Type I error, the obtained result is probably not significant as we think it is. Perhaps, most of the participants were interested in the research just because they did have both problems – anxiety and insomnia presented in their lives at a moment of conducting the research study. Moreover, any college students often have anxiety and insomnia occurring in the end of the semester (the research study was conducted in the end of the semester of fall, 2012). Conceivably, students were getting through the tests and exams at this particular time, and all that could cause anxiety and insomnia during a short-term period. Another reason to be concerned about a validity of the results is that we do not know enough information about the participants, like if they have anxiety or insomnia occurred earlier, and how many times before. Some of the participants could simply be taking some medications, which were prescribed to prevent or trigger the emergence of anxiety and insomnia. Despite these limitations, this research study contributes to the future revenue of anxiety and insomnia research studies. For the future work in this area, it would be interesting to add some questions about depression to questionnaire, and ask more details about participant’s life events and possible stressors. Gender differences may also play a substantial role in this research study. Females are more likely to experience emotional disruptions than males. For instance, according to Bogan (2007) young women are especially vulnerable to insomnia and it seems to increase with age by 20% – 50%. Men experience insomnia 1. 4 – 1. 7 times less than women. It is essential to make a gender type as an independent variable for the future research design.

“During the Period 1939-45 Opponents Within the Army Posed a Greater Threat to Hitler and the Nazi Regime Than Any Other Opposition Group.”

â€Å"During the period 1939-45 opponents within the army posed a greater threat to Hitler and the Nazi regime than any other opposition group. † How far do you agree with this statement? The Nazi’s arguably faced a lot of opposition between the years 1939-45 and not only from the army; who had the power of keeping up the morale of the citizens due to their military strengths and integrating part of the Nazi regime. However Hitler and the Nazi’s also faced other oppositions, such as the church which again was a source of opposition based on morale.The threats from the left and the right continued, as an on-going conflict of extremist behaviour. The youth of the country also posed a threat to Hitler and the Nazi’s due to boycotting and attacking the Hitler youth regimes. Firstly, the army was a major threat between the period 1935-49, due to the attempt of preventing war by several serving military officers, including Head of the General Staff, Franz Halder . Hitler and the Nazi’s are argued to have wanted as a means of showing Hitler’s power as a dictator, showing the significance of this threat to his regime.At the start of the period 1939, Hitler achieved a victory at Blitzkreig, which was followed by his momentous victory in Europe a year later, both of which led to the portrayal of Hitler as a military genius. However despite this title he had embarked, there were at least 6 assassination attempts of Hitler during the period 1943-44, including the two major attempts; Operation Flash and Operation Valkyrie, all of which failed for several different reasons.Operation Flash was an attempt to assassinate Hitler in March 1943, in which the bomb planted on his plane to Rastenburg failed to explode. There are several arguments explaining the failure of this attempt including the fact that the plane was too hot and the timed device therefore did not go off. Operation Valkyrie was another significant attempt on Hitler’ s life, known as The Stauffenberg bomb plot. This was argued to as the last realistic attempt and also the closest attempt at that, due to several minor movements of the suitcase planted by Beck.These assassination attempts increased the suspicion of the Gestapo against future army plots, and therefore Hitler’s protection was also increased. In terms of Hitler’s life protection the threat from the military was seen as a serious nationwide opposition in 1943, and therefore the fact that it was a nationwide opposition highlights the fact that it was the most significant opposition that Hitler faced between 1939 and 1945. The army did not only hold power over the assassination attempts but also held power over the morale of the public.The involvement of the USA in the war in 1941, along with military failures including the defeat at Stalingrad in 1942 and also the failure to defeat Russia made it evident that Germany were losing. These failures in wartime not only meant t hat Germany were seen as the losing party in the war, but it also meant that people were beginning to see flaws in Hitler’s strategic leadership. Similarly it was not only the army which posed threat to Hitler and the Nazi’s regime, the church was another opposition which they faced.Dietrich Bonhoeffer opposed Hitler and the Nazi’s and although the dictatorship meant that free speech had been abolished, he vocally fought against the Nazi’s. Such a brave decision meant that he did in fact stand alone, but it didn’t mean that others did not agree with his view that â€Å"what Germans have done to the Jews, they’ve also done to God’s people†. This was significant as it made him a role model for Christians and he regarded the Jews and Christians all as one.It was due to the African-American situation that he has witnessed in America which encouraged Bonhoeffer to stand up and protest against the Nazi’s, as in hindsight he sa w it as the same thing. This was not regarded as a major threat though as on July 20th 1944 Bonhoeffer was imprisoned in Gestapo prisons prior to being sent to a concentration camp. Bonhoeffer was hanged 3 weeks before Hitler’s suicide, which in itself is argued as emphasising that Hitler did not know how to handle the opposition, as his way of stopping it ultimately ended in the sacrifice of his own life.Although Bavarian Catholics were successful in pursuing Wagner’s ban on crucifixes in schools, the Catholic Church failed to condemn systematic extermination of Jews in Public (as early as 1942). The banning of crucifixes in Bavarian schools highlighting that the church was seen as some sort of threat to Hitler’s regime and also highlights the use of religion in society. This caused some uproar and in August 1941 the Nazi’s had a policy which was part of the Aktion T4 programme, the killing of asylum patients.However Bishop Von Galen was motivated by the attempt to maintain independence and integrity and led to an outspoken attack from the pulpit. This was regarded as a notable exception from the Nazi’s as Von Galen’s speech led to the â€Å"stepping down† of the programme. These exceptions from the Nazi’s and more so the acts of the religious people involved highlighted the importance of religion and also showed a devotion to Catholicism and not to the Nazi’s, therefore emphasising that the church cannot be seen as a real threat to Hitler and the Nazi’s.Other Sections of the German society posed threats to the Nazi’s, particularly the youth. Organised attempts to actively oppose the regime were set up. The Edelweiss Pirates were the most organised, these attacked the Hitler Youth and also went against social expectations of the youth in Germany. There was a lot of delinquency, drinking, smoking and even promiscuity among the young people, who deliberately went against Hitler and the Nazi’s regime. In December 1942 over 700 members were arrested and later executed in public on behalf of their actions, as a means of threatening and even more so a warning to others.These along with the ‘White Rose Group’ led by Sophie and Hans Scholl distributed anti-Nazi leaflets and graffiti, demonstrated through a march set up by University students through Munich. However the fact that Hans and Sophie Scholl were beheaded as a result of their protest demonstrates that the Nazi’s and Hitler were not allowing any form of anti-Nazi behaviour and showed publicly the limits that the Nazi’s were willing to go to in order to stop any opposition. Other groups were set up in 1941 including the ‘Kreisau Circle’ and the ‘Goerdeler Group’, both of which were seen as an opposition to the Nazi’s and Hitler.Both groups consisted of upper-class people who detested the Nazi barbarism and the fact that Hitler was leading German y into disaster. Von Moltke and Von Wartenburg made contact with the Goerdeler Group but they did not both share the same views on what they wanted out of Germany, just knew that they did not like Hitler’s leadership. The involvement of some members from both groups in the bomb plots meant that they were easily founded by the Gestapo in 1944; resulting in many members from both groups arrested and executed.This threat from the conservatives links into the threat of the army, however it is seen that the threat from the conservatives alone was not a massive threat to Hitler and the Nazi’s regime, and the deaths and arrests of several members shows that the threat was not great due to the fact that the Nazi’s were able to stop any threats present from the conservatives before they got too serious. The Nazi’s also faced great opposition from the left, which is argued as the most obvious opposition they faced, due to the left’s political position; thus being the complete opposite end of the political scale and therefore all of their iews were in direct contrast to the Nazi’s. The left faced many weaknesses and arguably their main fundamental weakness was due to the fact that their opinions in politics meant that they were seen as an opposition to the Nazi’s from the beginning of 1939, resulting in their vulnerability to the Gestapo. In Berlin alone 89 communist cells were set up in 1941, and a year later the communist resistance was united under the leadership of Wilhelm Knochel.Splinter groups were set up by ex-SPD members, such as the Socialist Front and also the Red Patrol. Splinter groups had a more assertive policy and even attempted to co-operate with other opposition groups. However despite this co-operation the left had little impact on Hitler and the Nazi regime. As well as active the active resistance, there was also passive resistance to Hitler and the Nazi’s, although it is hard to prove who acted as a means of passive resistance it is clear that such a thing was still present in Nazi Germany.These range from merely listening to foreign radio stations to the refusal to the ‘Heil Hitler’ salute. Despite being hard to prove and not necessarily being the greatest, most significant opposition that Hitler faced it shows that there were other ways in which people could subtly oppose the Nazi Regime. Another example was telling anti-regime jokes; which resulted in the punishment of death, one can say a little extreme for a punishment however it shows the force and power that Hitler and the Nazi regime have over the citizens of Germany at the time.It also shows that Hitler was highly against any opposition that he faced, and that he did not think twice about how he would eliminate this opposition. The passive opposition had little impact on the regime as a whole, as it was not a major threat, however it allowed people to subtly oppose Hitler and the Nazi Regime. In concl usion Hitler faced a lot of opposition, some greater than others; the army being an example. The army had a lot of power in Germany during the years 1939 and 1945, both for military purposes and also for the morale of the country.The army was also the only real threat to Hitler in the sense that they were the only opposition which were close to killing Hitler. The left is seen as one of the most motivated opposition due to their political contrasts with the Nazi’s, they were not seen as any real threat though due to their decrease in power by 1939. Amongst the youth there were several resistant groups set up, but again their limitations meant they could not offer any true threat to the regime.The greatest opposition is arguably that of the Church, this is due to the religious status of the country, and also the fact that the Nazis were unable to close down the churches, despite their attempts with the Bavarian Catholics. Although the church was a key opposition to the regime it was not necessarily a threat to the regime, due to no real attempts. Overall despite the plethora of oppositions that the regime faced the only real threat was the army. The army was the only opposition that attempted to assassinate Hitler, and fortunately for Hitler was not successful despite numerous attempts.

Contrastive analysis of perception verbs in English and Arabic Thesis - 1

Contrastive analysis of perception verbs in English and Arabic - Thesis Example (Mina smelled the perfume ) (active) (Meher felt a prick in his thumb) (state). (Meher felt sick). (descriptive) Tahir felt his tie (Active) . (Mazi tasted defeat) (descriptive) Lemon tastes bitter (state) (Jack tasted the warm broth) (Active) Chapter 3: Perception verbs in English 3.1  Ã‚   Introduction This chapter presents a discussion on the perception verbs and their usage in English language. It will develop an understanding of the importance and relevance of the correct forms of perception verbs to the meaning of the sentence and will also highlight the basic issues that non-native learners may face when they try to learn the language. This chapter forms an essential background for the conduction of the contrastive analysis between the Arabic and the English language perception verbs.    3.2 What are Perception Verbs Perception verbs are the verbs that define the actions undertaken by our sensory parts. These are an essential element of any languag e as these have the capacity to explain and display a diverse variety of human behavoiurs and nuances. In semantics, perception verbs have been a subject of much debate and research owing to the complexity of their usage as well as their capacity to be modified in language use. The field of perception verbs is one of the important semantic fields that received the attention of linguists since 1970s, along with other semantic fields like basic color terms (Berlin and Kay 1969), body parts (Andersen 1978), cooking verbs (Lehrer 1974), and motion verbs (Talmy 1975). However, while other subjects and aspects of language have been explored in order to assess the richness of the language or to explore the richness with which concepts can be expressed, perception verbs are of interest due to their difficulty to translate into other languages. Perception verbs relate to the active usage of language and portrat not only the perceptions, but often the emotions and the conceptions as well. Thi s makes the usage of the perception verbs complex and difficult to translate in different languages.    Also, other elements of the language like the nouns, vocabulary etc., are easy to learn as these are governed by simple rules of grammar. These semantic fields share universal elements, and exist frequently in many languages. It is a well-known fact that in order to recognize the typological shape of any language, we must be aware of â€Å"the distinctive character of its structure in relation to other languages based mainly on work in general typology, and on contrastive analysis and other types of cross linguistic studies† (Viberg, 2006, p.3). Perception verbs have also â€Å"supplied a rich field of research in linguistics including grammaticalisation, complementation and semantic change† (Ibarretxe-Antunano, 1999, p. 41).      The complexity associated with the perception verbs has its roots in the variety of modes in which perception is understood. Percept ion is a basic human process through which they are able to access external inputs and make sense of their surroundings. However, academic definition of perception is varied as different scholars tend to define perception differently. The definition of perception is essential to understand as it has a direct impact on the development and usage of the perception verbs. Sekuler and Blake defined it as â€Å"a biological process wherein the brain derives descriptions

Unethical police operations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Unethical police operations - Essay Example However, there are cases of police corruption and brutality in the United States. One of the most current cases of police brutality in the United States is the case of Michael Brown. The fatal shooting of Michael Brown by Officer Darren Wilson in Ferguson, Missouri showed the seriousness of police brutality in the US. This incident started when a call was made about stealing in progress at a market. The dispatch call indicated a black male suspect wearing a white T-shirt accompanied with another man. They were suspected to have stolen cigars. After 12.00pm, Wilson indicated that he was with the two suspects on Canfield and asked for backup. According to Dorian Johnson, the lawyer representing Brown’s friend, Wilson stopped the two suspects because of walking in the middle of the street. However, the two told the officer that they had almost reached their destination and therefore, will not be in the street after a short while, but Wilson grabbed Brown by his neck and eventuall y shot him. Wilson on the other hand, provided a different version. He indicated that Brown attacked him, prompting him to shoot. He also indicated that before firing at Brown, they struggled over the gun. The main question raised in this case is whether the shooting of unarmed college student was reasonable force or an illegal act. The grand jury in this case decided not to indict Wilson. I do not agree with the outcome of the case because it is a bad precedent in the police department. This is evident because it is not the first case of police killing unarmed Americans to be reported in the US as seen in the case of Eric Garner and Anthony Baez in New York (Baez, 2014). This decision also shows that our police system lacks accountability and inadequate disciplinary systems that discourage these incidences from happening. These policemen need to be stripped off their jobs, badges, pension, and gun for violating the public trust. Cases of

National Security and Science and Technology policy Essay

National Security and Science and Technology policy - Essay Example This exceedingly complex mission requires a focused effort from our entire society if we are to be successful. To this end, one primary reason for the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security was to provide the unifying core for the vast national network of organizations and institutions involved in efforts to secure our nation." (http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/theme_home5.jsp, para 2) United States history tells that war prompted the creation of most U.S. government science agencies. The integration of an applied Research and Development programs were essential elements in addressing and supporting the agencies' missions. Elements of fundamental science allows breakthrough of these unlimited opportunities. (http://www.issues.org/18.2/ bonvillian.html, para 18) Thus, R&D, as an integral part in the science and technology policy, has become a major factor in attaining the US national security. The role of science and technology in the nation's security was launched when Thomas Jefferson was commissioned to Lewis and Clark two centuries. Since then, territorial expansion and the industrial revolution continued to drive U.S. science and technology policy throughout the 19th century. The country's unforgettable experiences in the two World Wars and their aftermaths were the primary factors that influenced the government's realization of science and technology in the 20th century which soon became the turning point that lead to the revolution of science and technology and the importance of its research and development programs. (Marburger, 2005) The birth of the National Science Foundation in 1950 was the result of the country's attitudes towards the government's role in science and technology. Larger and more advanced Department of Energy laboratories were existed and established under the Atomic Energy Commission. Military services were at the same time provided with an official research office in 1951. At that time National Institute for Health (NIH) had existed for twenty years, wherein National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) were established eight years later. Some reorganizations occurred after 1960, notably the metamorphosis of the AEC into the Department of Energy and more recently the creation of the Department of Homeland Security, but since 1960 the federal framework has evolved very little. (Marburger, 2005) Presidential science advisors were appointed by the government to take the responsibility in overseeing adherence to a presidential policy that insists on competent, objective, balanced, and open advice. Their roles moreover involves in creating strategies on implementation and enforcement of these policies. (Branscomb, 2005) Some of the most significant roles of science advisors in the US federal government involved national security. During the war they linked the President and top

Constitutionality of the Affordable Care Act Essay

Constitutionality of the Affordable Care Act - Essay Example Constitutionality of the Affordable Care Act The U.S. Supreme Court has declared the constitutionality of the act except for a few passages that it declared to be â€Å"taxes† more than anything else. So my question is â€Å"If there is a questionable passage in the Affordable Care Act, how can it be declared constitutional and fair to those concerned? The president declared that he would not tax the middle class Americans and yet one of the penalties indicated within Obamacare for those who fail to comply is referenced as a tax. How was it possible for Congress to mandate a new tax within a new health care policy? †. This is a question that I feel needs to be answered since Obamacare, as it has to be popularly known, affects everyone living in the United States regardless of citizenship and residency status. To begin with, the Affordable Care Act has had shady beginnings and a rocky start as a campaign promise of then candidate Obama to the American people. By promising to provide the people with a comprehensive health care plan that will cover every single person living in this country, he needed to come up with a plan that could actually work for all concerned. His people in Congress out together the Affordable Care Act under his guidance and direction as a fulfillment of that promise. The problem is that the Affordable Care Act has come under close scrutiny and legal challenges from most political and private parties who view the act as a form of dictatorship on the American people. ... With the legal challenges posed before the Affordable Care Act among the various states in the country, and the state declarations that they would not enact such a government empowering law upon the citizens of their state, the question was then brought before the Supreme Court whose judicial representatives decided that the landmark March 2010 law had a majority of provisions that could be considered as legal and was therefore constitutional in form and content. According to the U.S. Department of Justice (2012) the Affordable Care Act is a , â€Å"... comprehensive health care reform law makes health insurance affordable for millions of Americans and protects them against potentially catastrophic medical expenses.† By definition, the Affordable Care Act sounds like it will finally clear up the problem of health care coverage for most Americans since the law will force insurance companies to cover the illnesses of their policy holders and their family alike without the safety net of being able to refuse coverage for certain illnesses during certain situations, those who oppose the law say that this particular vision of the government pertaining to healthcare coverage will not work because the provision will force the insurance companies to eventually shut down as they try to cover all pre-existing conditions and current conditions of their policy holders regardless of company guidelines. However, everyone has a bone to pick with the fact that the Affordable Care Act has a clear provision that dictates upon every American citizen to purchase health insurance or pay a penalty for not having any coverage. Those who oppose the law claim that this is a direct violation of the

Personal and Profesional Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Personal and Profesional Development - Essay Example On the other hand, professional development is a continuous improvement in a person’s career, not a one-time thing; it aims at assessing and skill improvement to increase one’s value in an organization. This enhances individual’s future in an organization especially with the ever changing and advanced world of modernity and technological enhancement (Masters, Wallace & Harwood, 2011). Professional development includes several facilitated learning opportunities which range from college degrees or university to formal coursework, seminars, conferences as well as informal learning, Professional development is known to be intensive and collaborative due to its evaluative stages. Therefore, it has to be noted that Professional development comprises several approaches that include the following, reflective supervision, lesson study, consultation, mentorship, coaching and technical assistance. There are several individual who participate in professional development on the daily basis from different fields with an aim of enhancing their demand at the place of work, for instance, health practitioners, lawyers, teachers, military officers and accountants just to mention a few, engage in professional development with an objective of lifelong learning as a way of improving professional competence in order to boost their career, to keep pace with ever-changing technology and practice or sometime to comply with a measure put in place by organizational regulatory body, in some cases individuals may be subjected to meet the professional development courses as a requirement established by human resource department (Wadhwa, 2008). Personal development, on the other hand, may comprise the art of developing other people too. This can be achieved through roles, for instance, mentoring or teaching by the way of personal competence.( for example, a manager who has particular skill, may use it

School councils Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

School councils - Essay Example "The youngsters involved also learn about society and citizenship as well as developing their personal skills. " (BBC News 2005) In a separate survey by BT and the charity Childline, only 47% of the children questioned said adults listened to what they said and acted on it. (Anderson 2004) Most adults agreed it was important to listen to children, but only 57% said this happened. The effectiveness of these School Councils is not as positive as some of the media would like for us to think. There has been recent research on the School Counsils and the results are similar to the ones revealed by Anderson (2000) The research suggested a school council could make a significant contribution to the life of a school and to young people's experience of democratic processes and practices. (BBC News 21005) Setting one up did not guarantee a positive outcome, though. "As with any other learning strategy, the context in which the council operates and its processes and practices need to be supported and kept under review in order to generate positive outcomes for students and for it to have an impact on the school," said the co-author of the study, Monica Taylor. (Daniels and Ivatts) there needed to be a school-wide culture of consultation, respect for the views of students and staff, participation - and the possibility of change.

Matthew the Apostle Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Matthew the Apostle - Essay Example (M Black, 1967: T Zahn, 1909) Give extensive evidence that Matthew originally wrote his book in Hebrew. Even those individuals that deny the external evidence that Matthew was written in Aramaic or Hebrew accept the fact that at least some of the sayings in the Gospel give evidence for an Aramaic foundation. This would require extensive research and narration before any of them would be able to be interpreted. Although this gospel doesn't name its author it is thought from earlier times that Matthew was the writer. (J Calvin, 2003) explains that originally Matthew was known as Levi (Mark 2:14), but Jesus changed His name to Matthew. (R Gundry, 1994) explains that Jesus' famous Sermon on the Mount is only recorded in Matthew. It is a masterful account of how people should live under God's authority on earth. Chapters 5 - 7 concentrate on the Sermon on the Mount especially looking at early discipleship. Matthew comments on the death and suffering of Jesus more than any of the other gospels. (M. Green, 2000) Describes how the Sermon on the Mount was delivered on a hillside it is thought to be somewhere near the Sea of Galilee where many of Jesus' disciples worked as fishermen. This sermon shows that people who think they are high and mighty do not have a place in heaven, but only those who are meek and humble acknowledging the word and commands of God. It demonstrates the humility of God's love for His people. In particular it demonstrates that God does not have favourites. Jesus wanted to make it clear that our ways are not the ways of the father and that we must love others even our enemies. Jesus did not give detailed rules instead He gave broad principles that people would have difficulty finding loopholes. Jesus was aware that some would walk away from the sermon having heard, but not taking action. Like the man who built his house on sand they would face a great fall. Yet despite their stubbornness to believe, Jesus chose to teach them the ways of the father and t he principles they must apply to their lives to be accepted into God's family. Sermon on the Mount Theme's Before giving the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus had talked about righteousness (Matt. 5:17-20). This prepared the crowds for the Sermon on the Mount. When Jesus gave the Sermon on the Mount the crowds were ready to listen to what God had to say. The crowds were amazed by the power of authority that Jesus gave when he presented the Sermon on the Mount. (C. H. Talbert, 2004) describes how Jesus taught the importance of having a righteous life and the true spirit of commandment - keeping. He spoke of loving one another, even your enemies and not taking revenge on those who treat us wrongly. This is true for today's society. It is easy to give in to man's way of doing things, but if we are to enter through the gates of heaven then we must do as the father wants us to do. (M. Henry, 2005) explains how this is especially difficult for a new Christian who has only just accepted God into their lives and walked away from their old lives. At first there will be sin in their lives, but as they pro gress as a Christian they will begin to get rid of the old and embrace the new. (Ephesians 6:12) makes it clear that ours is not a battle of flesh and blood, but against principalities, powers, against the rulers of darkness and spiritual wickedness in high places. Therefore we must remain true to God's

Harassment at the Workplace Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 23

Harassment at the Workplace - Research Paper Example Based on data collected from a multiple of sources, this research paper established that discrimination against the disabled is quite prevalent in the country, and is perpetrated by the very people obliged by law to protect the integrity of every employee, the employer. Similar, the prevalence of sexual harassment at the workplace have hit staggering figures such as those reported by Gruber at â€Å"between 28 percent and 75 percent† (Gumport, 2009). Yet, there is a perpetual fear that the most affected group, women interns, never get to report their ordeal for fear of retribution and the apparent in federal and state laws that protect this particular group of persons. An average adult spends approximately one third of his/her life at the workplace. The resulting interaction inherently causes work issues since it is virtually impossible to have a workplace devoid of conflict, whether spontaneous or systematic. Such workplace issues may result in negative psychological symptoms. For instance, numerous researchers have attributed the high prevalence of mental health issues such as depression and anxiety to perceived stress at the workplace. Presently, while many organizations are embracing diversity and stratification, an apparent laxity in taming innately malicious individuals or systems have seen a rise in cases of harassment and discrimination. The scope of such discrimination range from unfair hiring or biased treatment of individuals based on their race, gender (including pregnancy), religion, national origin, age, disability, among others. Harassment on the other hand relates to unwelcome conduct based on the unit or a combination of elements enumerated earlier.

Cons of Playing Video Games Essay Example for Free

Cons of Playing Video Games Essay Video game is a series of 2D or 3D world created by author or editor to allow public experience by representing as a person or animal inside. In my humble opinion, playing video games have more cons than pros. My essay will tell you that playing video games have more cons because it wasting time, cause indulgence, side effect on body health and cause volatility. In the 21 century, video games not only available for boys, it is also already become part of the girl’s life style. Although most of the teenagers like to play video games, but playing video games is actually wasting our time. Commonly, video game is story style and continuously. So, we will need a lot of time to finish one chapter or complete a task. Regarding to that, our time to doing our homework or revision becomes less. Students may be scolded by teacher or being demerit for not completing their homework. Finally, the result of the students may be affected. Playing video games will also cause indulgence. The interesting story lines encourage people to indulge in video games. They usually play the video games until forget to eat, wash and rest. Some of them even play the video games until the whole day. This endangers one person life. Among these few month, there are report on teenager die in front of computer and the causes of death is due to play video games three days non-stop. The main reason is do not have enough rest. Besides that, playing video games for long term will also cause side effect or negative effect on body health. One of the effect is eating without follow the actual time. When playing video games, a person will always play until forget the time and miss out the lunch time and dinner time. Sitting in front of the computer for a long period of time without moving will also increase the risk of obesity and give burden to the spiral cord. Tiredness of eye and fingers are also caused by looking at the screen and typing for too long, At the other sides, video games also encourage teenager to involve in volatility. Many of the video games contain volatile issues like video games that involving fight and guns. If a person cannot control himself, he will slowly follows the attitude of the character inside and involves in volatile. Teenager probably will also unable to come back to reality world as the illusion world in video games are always perfect as it can be change according our favorable. In conclusion, playing video games have more cons than pros. Teenagers must not be besotted video games too much. In fact, they should spend their time on enjoying their teenager’s life.

Understanding And Managing Resistance To Organizational Change Management Essay

Understanding And Managing Resistance To Organizational Change Management Essay Most businesses have to undergo change as a result of any of a number of causes: a changing competitive landscape; a new business strategy; changing of customer or workforce demographics and expectations; new laws; new technology or a changing economic environment. Rumelt, as cited by Boyer and Robert (2006, p.325), claims that organizational change is the most vital issue in front of executive management teams, even above product and market strategies. Therefore, as businesses approach change, an important issue for many is effecting the needed change in the face of resistance. This paper will examine resistance to change and approaches to managing organizational change. Resistance to change can occur at both the individual and the organizational level. Robbins (2011, p.627) summarizes major factors in such resistance. On the individual level, these factors develop from habit as well as insecurity about ones well-being, career, or general fear of the unknown. On the organizational level, the factors are even more complex: structural inertia; insufficiently comprehensive focus of change; group inertia; and threats to expertise and the existing hierarchy. Habits are useful, and even vital to our daily lives. They take away the need for us to willfully focus attention on every action and thought, turning into non-events such things as tying our shoes, driving a car, and interacting with others. However, habits can also be non-optimal, non-productive, or even destructive. Woods et al. (2002) conclude that habits are associated with lower stress and sense of being in control, and the greatest benefits of habits are that they allow for reflection on the past and planning for the future. On the disadvantages of habits, they note that judgments that have become automatic because of previous experiences may cause people to be less aware of small but potentially important changes in the current situation, and that behaviors may continue even when the situation changes to make those behaviors no longer appropriate. In an organization, structural inertia is the product of embedded mechanisms that perpetuate existing behaviors. These can be embodied in formal procedures and regulations as well as in unwritten rules and social norms, including hiring selection criteria. Structural inertia is not in itself, however, a bad thing, and it should not be challenged without good reason. At the same time, when good reason exists, change must not be avoided. As cited in Mellahi and Wilkinson (2004, p.11), Hannan and Freeman note that structural inertia causes organizations to react slowly to threats and opportunities, instead of adapting they are more likely to dissolve. However, they report this risk decreases as the organization grows and suggesting that in larger organizations there is greater capacity to absorb the shock of adjusting to organizational change. Another factor against change in an organization is when the effort is applied to an area that is not large enough, or where the focus is too limited. Surrounded by and interacting with a larger environment still doing things the old way, changes tend to be temporary only. Even where individuals want to change, group inertia, or the expectations and attitudes of their group or team, can hold them back. For others, though, change represents a direct threat to their authority or prestige, leading not only to resistance, but possibly direct opposition. Robbins (2011, p.628) lists eight tactics to help moderate resistance to change: education; participation; building support; developing trust; making the change fair; covert manipulation; selecting people who are able to accept change; and coercion. Education, employees are more willing to accept change when they understand its rationale. This is most effective when the rationale is not solely based on maximizing value to the shareholder, but takes into account the interests of all stakeholders, including employees. Participation, allowing those who are impacted by the change to have meaningful input in the process and this may result in a suboptimal result. The benefits tend to reduce resistance among participants. Building support, when workers are fearful of change, counseling and training can help boost confidence, and perks can help make the adjustment easier. Developing trust, change is better tolerated when implemented by trust-worthy managers. Making the change fair, workers will view a change negatively if it is not seen to be applied fairly and consistently. Covert manipulation, lying about the need for change, or starting false rumors, can be an effective form of manipulation, as can give influential resistors inducements to support the change. However, these deceptions, if discovered, put at risk the credibility of management and those effecting the change. Selecting people able to accept change, some people are predisposed to prefer stability, while others are more open to change. An organization can shape its hiring policies to prefer candidates that are tolerant of change, thus reducing one form of resistance when organizational change occurs. However, there are potential risks in this approach. First, this bias might skew hiring in a way that exposes the organization to discrimination lawsuits. Second, it might create a monoculture that puts the organization at a competitive disadvantage. An alternative to changing hiring practices is to identify those within a group that are more accepting of change and use them as examples and advocates for applying change throughout the organization or area where change is needed. Coercion, when all else fails, threats and force can push through a change. It can often be done quickly, although it carries the risk of loss of morale and trust in management. Robbins (2011, pp.630-636) describes four major approaches used in managing organizational change: Lewins Three-Step Model; Kotters Eight-Step Plan for Implementing Change; Action Research; and Organizational Development. Another notable approach is Wilfried Krugers Change Management Iceberg. Krugers Change Management Iceberg Kruger(1996) likens the factors involved in organizational change to an iceberg. He contends that managers of change consider only the tip of the iceberg, which relates to issues of cost, quality, and time. However, perceptions, beliefs, power and politics are below the surface, which must also be managed in order for change to succeed. Managing issues from these areas involves understanding that people at every level of an organization are affected by change. These people can generally be grouped into four categories: promoters, who support the change; potential promoters, who are disposed to accepting the change but have not yet been convinced; opponents, who are against the change; and hidden opponents, who appear to be supportive, but are actually against the change. People in each of these categories must be managed appropriately to avoid failure. Lewins Three-Step Change Model Robbins (2011, p.630) describes the three steps of Kurt Lewins Change Model as unfreezing, movement, and refreezing. Using the hypothetical example of a large oil company that wanted to consolidate its three marketing offices located in different cities into a single office, two forces are considered during the step of unfreezing acceptance of the way things currently are. The first, a driving force, moves behavior away from the status quo. The second, a restraining force, suppresses behaviors that move away from the status quo. Unfreezing can be accomplished by increasing the driving force, weakening the restraining force, or executing both actions. In the hypothetical example, restraining forces could take the form of objection to the inconvenience involved in moving to a different city, especially for those with children, houses or roots in the community. Management might accomplish the first step of unfreezing acceptance of the status quo by increasing the driving force by, for e xample, helping with moving costs or with securing low-rate mortgages in the new location. Similarly, restraining forces could be weakened by listening to and helping clarify worker concerns. Figure . Source: http://www.sqaki.com/9/KrugerChangeIceberg/screenshot.gif When the second of Lewins three steps movement is underway, completing the transition quickly, as opposed to deliberate, plodding change, is associated with greater chance of overall success, and the reasons are not hard to deduce. The two stable states the original one, before change began, and the one after the transition has been completed are fully engaged in the business of the organization. However, during the transition, the organization might be unstable, lines of communication are in flux, and the business of the organization might conduct inefficiently. An organization in the middle of organizational change is like a boxer changing boxing gloves that the transition should be as quick as possible. When the tolerance for error is extremely limited, for example, such as when transitioning from a manual system of order processing to an automated one. It would be foolhardy to flip a switch that stops the first and begins the second. Prudence dictates that there should be a t ransition period when both systems are operating in parallel. Although such a transition is costly, it allows time for errors to be worked out of the new system. Lewins final step refreezing is needed in order to stop reversion to the previous stable state or continued movement to some unintended stable state. Refreezing is accomplished by balancing the driving force against the restraining force. In the hypothetical oil company example, this might be done by making permanent a salary increase. It is assumed that as time progresses workers will get used to the new way of doing things, adopting it as a new normal. Kotters Eight-Step Change Model Kotter (1995) builds on Lewins approach, breaking the steps into greater detail. Expressed as a list of errors that contribute to the failure of organizational transformation, Kotter presents an eight-step model of change: Error #1: Not Establishing a Great Enough Sense of Urgency (Kotter 1995, p.61). Kotter considers this step essential, declaring that half of the companies he has observed fail here. Executives either pay this step only cursory attention or worry that showing the urgency of the situation will precipitate plunging morale and lower share prices, for all of which they will be held to account. For this reason, outsiders may be brought in to give the unwelcome message. The intent of this stage is to make the status quo threatening and change the only relief. According to Kotter, bad business results may be used as a pretext and in some successful cases a businesses crisis has been engineered for the purpose of creating the sense of urgency needed for organization change to succeed. Kotter argues that success requires at least 75% of management to believe that the status quo is no longer tolerable. Error #2: Not Creating a Powerful Enough Guiding Coalition (Kotter 1995, p.62). Advocates for change must include a sufficient number of senior, influential stakeholders in order for anything more than token movement to occur. Kotter allows that only a few such people three to five may be adequate at the beginning, in a large corporation this number needs to increase to as many as 20 or 50 powerful members to create substantial progress. This coalition of stakeholders may well go beyond senior management and include board members, representatives from important customers, as well as senior labor leaders. Failure at this point, according to Kotter, comes from underestimating the effort required to create change and undervaluing the guiding coalition. As a result, the coalition might be put under the leadership of someone from human resources or a lower level manager. Without active top-level backing, more senior managers can insulate themselves and their departments from change, eff ectively blocking progress and stopping change. Error #3: Lacking a Vision (Kotter 1995, p.63). Kotter remarks that every case he has witnessed of successful organizational change has involved the guiding coalition being able to develop and communicate an image of the future. Without such a unifying vision, the effort can lose its focus and devolve into contradictory and ineffective projects that either produce no organizational change at all, or, worse, change for the worse. Kotter describes one instance: [A] company gave out four-inch-thick notebooks describing its change effort. In mind-numbing detail, the books spelled out procedures, goals, methods, and deadlines. But nowhere was there a clear and compelling statement where all this was leading. Not surprisingly, most of the employees with whom I talked were either confused or alienated. The big, thick books did not rally them together or inspire change. In fact, they probably had just the opposite effect.(1995, p.63) Error #4: Undercommunicating the Vision by a Factor of Ten (Kotter 1995, pp.63-64). Transformational vision in communicating should be wide, frequent, inclusive, clear and credible. Kotter sees this step mishandled in three ways: first, the message is delivered only once or only to a small group; second, the vision is poorly expressed perhaps because it has been poorly conceived; and third, the message may be effectively conveyed in speeches and emails, but their content is belied by the behavior of senior executives, who expose the vision as being merely empty posturing. For Kotter, the communicating the vision also means expressing the message through actions that are consistent with the vision. Error #5: Not Removing Obstacles to the New Vision (Kotter 1995, pp.64-65). Barriers that hinder individuals and groups from engaging in the new way of doing things should be moved aside where possible. Although these barriers can be self-imposed there may also be obstacles that arise from the organizational structure or are imposed by ones job description or performance-appraisal metrics. Allowing these blockers to remain can bring the entire transformational effort to a halt. Error #6: Not Systematically Planning For and Creating Short-Term Wins (Kotter 1995, pp.65-66). When organizational change takes place over an extended period of time, people need positive feedback to know that they are on the right track and that the change is worth the effort. Rather than looking for and publicizing such positive news as might occur during the transformation period, Kotter advises that the guiding coalition should plan for projects that will produce short-term wins. This serves the purpose of keeping up morale, while also providing a real indication that overarching progress is being made. These mini projects can also serve as test cases to help tweak the transformation vision. Error #7: Declaring Victory Too Soon (Kotter 1995, pp.66-67). Kotter found that over a seven year period monitoring a successful transformation, the first gains were seen in year two but the maximum gain did not occur until year five. He contends that abandoning transformation efforts after the first gain misses the opportunity to achieve even greater success by confronting the structures that are still inconsistent with the transformation vision, but which had earlier been avoided because they had seemed simply too big to tackle at the time. Rather than declare victory at the first sign of performance improvement, the momentum can be used to achieve even greater performance gains. Error #8: Not Anchoring Changes in the Corporations Culture (Kotter 1995, p.67). New behaviors must take root, becoming a part of shared values, or they may degrade or revert when no longer subject to scrutiny and pressure of transformational change. Kotter argues that two factors have major importance in sealing change into a corporate culture. The first factor is to clearly show people the link between improved performance and the new behaviors and approaches. If people are left to make the link themselves, there is a risk that they may mistakenly link improved performance with something else. The second factor is to make sure that succession decisions are in place so that those who will follow into top management continue to be champions of change. According to Robbins (2011, pp.631-631), the Action Research change process uses a five-step method of systematically collecting and analyzing data in order to arrive at a change action. The five steps are: diagnosis, analysis, feedback, action, and evaluation. During diagnosis, the change agent gathers information by asking questions, looking at records, and finding out what concerns employees and what changes they say are need. Analysis involves looking for patterns and commonalities; these discoveries are turned into three parts: main concerns, secondary concerns, and possible actions. The third step, feedback, is comprised of sharing the findings with employees who, aided by the change agent, create an action plan to achieve changes. Next, the plan is put into action, with the employees and change agent performing the specific tasks in the plan. Finally, evaluation is done, using the data captured during the diagnosis step to assess the effectiveness of the action plan. This chan ge process has two obvious benefits: the first is that problems are sought, and then solutions are determined based on the problem. This is in contrast to many improvement activities where a solution goes in search of a problem. The second benefit is that resistance to change is reduced by the deep engagement of employees into the improvement process. As a point of criticism, this approach seems very useful in operational areas of which employees have direct knowledge. However, it seems of limited benefit when change involves larger parts of an organization. For example, in the hypothetical oil company case mentioned earlier, from the perspective of employees, the need for change would not be obvious, and it would be all too easy for squabbles to arise between the marketing offices over which office would remain for the other to merge into. Organizational Development (OD) is a collection of change methods that combines organizational growth with respect for human growth. Robbins (2011, p.633) summarizes the values that these methods generally support: Respect for people, individuals deserve dignity, are responsible and caring. Trust and support, a healthy organization is open, trusting, genuine and supportive. Power equalization, effective organizations place less importance on hierarchic control. Confrontation, problems should not be avoided, but addressed openly. Participation, people affected by a change will tend to commit to their implementation in proportion to the extent that they are involved in the decisions. Robbins lists six OD change-related interventions, but there are far more. Holman et al. (2007, pp.17-18) describe sixty-one, classifying them into five types: adaptive methods, which use practices that can be adjusted to varying needs; planning methods, which are used for setting strategic direction and determining core identify; structuring methods, which are used to redefine and organize; improving methods, which increase operational efficiencies and effectiveness without challenging the basic assumptions of the organization; and supportive methods, which can be used to make the other change methods more effective. In conclusion, this paper reviewed the concept of organizational change, why it happens, and its risks and benefits. Resistance to change, its motivations, and methods of managing change were also considered. Based on the great variety of approaches to managing resistance and promoting change, it is reasonable to conclude that no single method will work best in every situation. However, the abundance of approaches also suggests that with careful deliberation and application successful organizational transformation can be achieved.

Hplc Analysis Of Aloe Vera Tablets Biology Essay

Hplc Analysis Of Aloe Vera Tablets Biology Essay The project work was aimed to achieve the quantitative determination of aloin and aloe emodin in the form of tablets by employing HPLC. The method used was reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography. Calibration curve method was used for the quantification of aloin and aloe emodin. The mobile phase was the mixture of acetonitrile and deionised water in the ratio of 60:40 respectively. The mobile phase was pumped at 1.5 ml/minute and the analyte was quantified at the wavelength of 220 and 296nm. The column used for separation was kromasil 5C18. Reverse phase Isocratic run of standard aloin and standard aloe emodin was done and the peaks obtained from their analysis were used to compare the test sample peaks. Aloe vera colax tablets manufactured by Aloe pura laboratories were used as the test sample tablets which were extracted with water, methanol, acetonitrile, methanol-water and acetonitrile-water. After extraction they were subjected for isocratic run in HPLC instrument a nd the data obtained were compared with that of the standard. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction to Aloe Vera Aloes is the dried juice of the leaves of Aloe barbadensis Miller, known as Curacao aloes, or of Aloe perryi Baker known as Socotrine aloes, or of Aloe ferox Miller and hybrids of the species of Aloe africana Miller and Aloe spicata Baker, known as Cape aloes belonging to the family Liliaceae. [2,3] The synonym of aloes is Aalwee, Aalwyn, Kumari, Star cactus, Aroe, Acibar, Babosa, etc. [1] Aloes is indigeneous to eastern and southern Africa and grown in Cape colony, Zanzibar and islands of Socotra. It is also cultivated in Caribbean islands, Europe and many parts of India, including North West Himalayan region. [2] All the varieties of aloe are the major sources of anthraquinone glycosides. The principal active composition of aloe is aloin, which is a mixture of glucosides, among which barbaloin is the chief constituent. It is chemically aloe-emodin anthrone C-10 glucoside and is water-soluble. [2] Barbaloin is a C- glycoside and it is not hydrolysed by heating with dilute acids or alkalies. Ferric chloride decomposes barbaloin by oxidative hydrolysis into aloe-emodin-anthrone, little aloe-emodin and glucose. [2] Along with barbaloin, aloes also contains isobarbaloin, b-barbaloin, aloe-emodin and resins. The drug also contains aloetic acid, homonataloin, aloesone, chrysophanic acid, chrysamminic acid, galactouronic acid, choline, choline salicylate, saponins, mucopolysaccharides, glucosamines, hexuronic acid, coniferyl alcohol, etc. [2] The amount of barbaloin in different commercial varieties varies to a large extent. Curacao aloes contain about 22 percent of barbaloin. Indian variety, generally Aloe vera contain very less quantity (3.5 to 4 percent). Curacao aloes contains two and half times quantity of aloe-emodin , compared to Cape-aloe-emodin. [2] The resin of aloe principally contains Aloesin. It is a type of C- glucosyl chromome. Aloesin is also responsible for purgative action of aloes. [2] Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Aloin [5] Aloe emodin [6] 1.2 Uses of Aloe Vera: Aloes is used as purgative. Its effect is mainly on colon. It has a stronger purgative action in the series of all crude drugs with anthracene glycosidal content. To counter effect the gripping action, it is given along with carminatives. [2] It facilitates the healing of any kind of skin wound, burn, or scald even speeding recovery time after surgery. [4] It is applied topically in acne, sunburn, frostbite (it appears to prevent decreased blood flow), shingles, screening out x-ray radiation, psoriasis, preventing scarring, rosacea, warts, wrinkles from aging, and eczema. [2, 4] It also seems to help prevent opportunistic infections in cases of HIV and AIDS due to its immune system stimulant properties. [4] It appears to be of help in cancer patients (including lung cancer) by cativating white blood cells and promoting growth of non- cancerous cells. [4] Aloe also appears to work on heartburn, arthritis, and rheumatism pain and asthma. [2, 4] It also lowers the blood sugar levels in diabetics. [2, 4] Other situations in which it appears to work when taken internally inclue congestion, internal worms, indigestion, stomach ulcers, colitis, hemorrhoids, liver problems such as cirrhosis and hepatitis, kidney infections, urinary tract infections, prostate problems, and as a general detoxifier. [2, 4] CHAPTER 2 HPLC 2.1 HPLC: Introduction and Instrumentation The technique of high performance liquid chromatography is so called because of its improved performance when compared to classical column chromatography. It is also called as high-pressure liquid chromatography since pressure is used when compared to classical column chromatography. Instead of a solvent being allowed to drip through a column under gravity, it is forced through under high pressure of up to 400 atmospheres. For the separation, identification and quantification of compounds, this method is frequently used in biochemistry and analytical chemistry. [11, 12] The development of HPLC from classical column chromatography can be attributed to the development of smaller particle sizes. Smaller particle size is important since they offer more surface area over the conventional larger sizes. [7] 1960s 40 to 60m 1970s 10 to 20m 1980s 5 to 10m 1990s 1 to 3m A porous particle of 5m offers a surface area of 100-860 sq.metres/gram with an average of 400 sq.metres/gram. These offer very high plate counts upto 100,000/metre. Table 1: Comparison of classical column chromatography with HPLC [7] Parameter Classical column chromatography HPLC Stationary phase particle size Large 60-200m Small 3-20m Column size Length x int. diameter Large 0.5-5m x 0.5-5cm i.d. Small 5-50cm x 1-10mm i.d. Column material Glass Mostly metal Column packing pressure Slurry packed at low pressure often gravity Slurry packed at high pressure >5000 psi Operating pressure Low ( High (500 3000 psi) Flow rates Low to very low Medium to high (Often >3ml/min) Sample load Low to medium (g/mg) Low to very low (mg) Parameter Classical column chromatography HPLC Cost Low High Detector flow cell volume Large 300 to 1000ml Low 2 to 10ml Column efficiency i.e. Resolving power (Low) Theoretical plates per meter (High) often >100,000 Plates per meter Types of stationary phases available Limited range Wide range Scale of operation Preparative scale Analytical and preparative scale 2.2 Types of HPLC techniques [7, 9, 10, 11, 12] Based on Modes of Chromatography There are two modes viz. Normal phase mode and Reverse phase mode. These modes are based on the polarity of stationary phase and mobile phase. Before explaining the modes, it is important to know the interactions, which occur between solute, stationary and mobile phase. Polar Polar interaction or affinity is more Nonpolar Nonpolar interaction or affinity is more Polar Nonpolar interaction or affinity is less Normal phase mode: In normal phase mode, the stationary phase (eg. Silica gel) is polar in nature and the mobile phase is non-polar. In this technique, non-polar compounds travel faster and are eluted first. This is because of less affinity between solute and stationary phase. Polar compounds are retained for longer time in the column because of more affinity towards stationary phase and take more time to be eluted from the column. This is not advantageous in pharmaceutical applications since most of the drug molecules are polar in nature and takes longer time to be eluted and detected. Hence this technique is not widely used in pharmacy. Reverse phase mode: In reverse phase technique, a non-polar stationary phase is used. The mobile phase is polar in nature. Hence polar components get eluted first and non-polar compounds are retained for a longer time. Since most of the drugs and pharmaceuticals are polar in nature, they are not retained for a longer time and eluted faster, which is advantageous. Different columns used are ODS (Octadecyl silane) or C18, C8, C4, etc. Common reverse phase solvents are methanol, acetonitrile, tetrahydrofuran and water. Based on principle of separation Adsorption chromatography Ion exchange chromatography Ion pair chromatography Size exclusion or Gel permeation chromatography Affinity chromatography Chiral phase chromatography Each of the above technique is described in brief as follows: Adsorption chromatography: The principle of separation is adsorption. Separation of components takes place because of the difference in affinity of compounds towards stationary phase. This principle is seen in normal phase as well as reverse phase mode, where adsorption takes place. Ion exchange chromatography: The principle of separation is ion exchange, which is reversible exchange of functional groups. In ion exchange chromatography, an ion exchange resin is used to separate a mixture of similar charged ions. For cations, a cation exchange resin is used. For anions, an anion exchange resin is used. Ion pair chromatography: In ion pair chromatography, a reverse phase column is converted temporarily into ion exchange column by using ion pairing agents like pentane or hexane or heptane or octane sulphonic acid sodium salt, trtramethyl or tetraethyl ammonium hydroxide, etc. Size exclusion or gel permeation chromatography: In this type of chromatography, a mixture of components with different molecular sizes is separated by using gels. The gel used acts as molecular sieve and hence a mixture of substances with different molecular sizes is separated. Soft gels like agarose , dextran or polyacrylamide are used. Semi rigid gels like polystyrene, alkyl dextran in non-aqueous medium are also used. The mechanism of separation is by steric and diffusion effects. Affinity chromatography: Affinity chromatography uses the affinity of the sample with specific stationary phases. This technique is mostly used in the field of Biotechnology, Microbiology, Biochemistry, etc. Chiral phase chromatography: Separation of optical isomers can be done by using chiral stationary phases. Different principles operate for different types of stationary phases and for different samples. The stationary phases used for this type of chromatography are mostly chemically bonded silica gel. Based on elution technique 1. Isocratic separation: In this technique, the same mobile phase combination is used throughout the process of separation. The same polarity or elution strength is maintained throughout the process. In this technique, the peak width increases with retention time linearly according to the equation for N, the number of theoretical plates. Gradient separation: In this technique, a mobile phase combination of lower polarity or elution strength is used followed by gradually increasing the polarity or elution strength. One example is a gradient starting at 10% acetonitrile and ending at 90% acetonitrile after 25 minutes. The two components of the mobile phase are termed as A and B. Where A is the weak solvent and B is the strong solvent. Weak solvent allows the solute to elute slowly while strong solvent rapidly elutes the solutes from the column. A is usually water where as B is an organic solvent which is miscible with water such as acetonitrile, methanol, THF or isopropanol. Based on scale of operation 1. Analytical HPLC: Where only analysis of the samples are done. Recovery of the samples for reusing is normally not done, since the sample used is low. Eg. mg quantities. 2. Preparative HPLC: Where the individual fractions of pure compounds can be collected using fraction collector. The collected samples are reused eg. Separation of few grams of mixtures by HPLC. Based on type on analysis 1. Qualitative analysis: Which is used to identify the compound, detect the presence of impurities, to find out the number of components, etc. This is done by using retention time values. 2. Quantitative analysis: Which is done to determine the quantity of the individual or several components in a mixture. This is done by comparing the peak area of the standard and sample. 2.3 Principle of separation in HPLC: [7, 9] The principle of separation in normal phase and reverse phase mode is adsorption. When a mixture of components is introduced in to a HPLC column, they travel according to their relative affinities towards the stationary phase. The component, which has more affinity towards the adsorbant, travels slower. The component, which has less affinity towards the stationary phase, travels faster. Since no two components have the same affinity towards the stationary phase, the components are separated. 2.4 Instrumental Requirements [7, 9, 10, 12] Pumps solvent delivery system Mixing unit, gradient controller and solvent degassing Injector Manual or auto injectors Guard columns Detectors Recorders and integrators Fig. 3 The schematic diagram of HPLC [13] 1. Pump Solvent delivery system The solvents or mobile phases used must be passed through the column at high pressure at about 1000 to 3000 psi. This is because as the particle size of stationary phase is few m (5 10m), the resistance to the flow of solvent is high. Hence such high pressure is recommended. There are different types of pumps available. They are mechanical pumps and pneumatic pumps. A mechanical pump operates with constant flow rate and uses a sapphire piston. This type of pump is used in analytical scale. Pneumatic pumps operate with constant pressure and use highly compressed gas. The solvents used must be of high purity, preferably HPLC grade and filtered through 0.45m filter. Check valves: These are present to control the flow rate of solvent and back pressure. Pulse dampners: These are used to dampen the pulses observed from the wavy baseline caused by the pumps. 2. Mixing unit, gradient controller and solvent degassing Mixing unit is used to mix solvents in different proportions and pass through the column. There are two types of mixing units. They are low pressure mixing chamber, which uses helium for degassing solvents. High pressure mixing chamber does not require helium for degassing solvents. Mixing of solvents is done either with a static mixer, which is packed with beads, or dynamic mixer, which uses magnetic stirrer and operates under high pressure. Gradient controller In an isocratic separation, mobile phase is prepared by using pure solvent or mixture of solvents, i.e. solvent of same eluting power or polarity is used. But in gradient elution technique, the polarity of the solvent is gradually increased and hence the solvent composition has to be changed. Hence a gradient controller is used when two or more solvent pumps are used for such separations. Solvent degassing Several gases are soluble in organic solvents. When solvents are pumped under high pressure, gas bubbles are formed which will interfere with the separation process, steady baseline and the shape of the peak. Hence degassing of the solvent is important. This can be done by using any one of the following technique. Vacuum filtration which can remove all air bubbles. But it is not always reliable and complete. Helium purging i.e. by passing helium through the solvent. This is very effective but helium is expensive. Ultrasonication by using ultrasonicator, which converts ultra high frequency to mechanical vibrations. This causes the removal of air bubbles. 3. Injector Manual or auto injectors Several devices are available either for manual or auto injection of the sample. Different devices are: Septum injectors for injecting the sample through a rubber septum. This is not common, since the septum has to withstand high pressure. Stop flow (on line) in which the flow of mobile phase is stopped for a while and the sample is injected through a valve device. Rheodyne injector (Loop valve type) It is the most popular injector. This has a fixed volume loop like 20ml or 50ml or more. Injector has two modes, i.e. load position when the sample is loaded in the loop and inject mode, when the sample is injected. 4. Guard column Guard column has very small quantity of adsorbent and improves the life of the analytical column. It also acts as a prefilter to remove particulate matter, if any, and other material. Guard column has the same material as that of analytical column. Guard column does not contribute to any separation. 5. Analytical columns Analytical column is the most important part of HPLC technique, which decides the efficiency of separation. There are several stationary phases available depending upon the technique or mode of separation used. Column material: The columns are made up of stainless steel, glass, polyethylene and PEEK (Poly ether ether ketone). Most widely used are stainless steel, which can withstand high pressure. Latest ones are PEEK columns. Column length: Varies from 5cm to 30cm Column diameter: Ranges from 2mm to 50mm Particle size: From 1m to 20m Particle nature: Spherical, uniform sized, porous materials are used. Surface area: 1 gram of stationary phase provides surface area ranging from 100 860 sq.m with an average of 400 sq.m. Functional group: the functional group present in stationary phase depends on the type of chromatographic separation. In normal phase mode it contains the silanol groups (hydroxy group). In reverse phase mode it contains the following groups: C18 Octa Decyl Silane (ODS) column C8 Octyl column C4 Butyl column CN Nitrile column NH2 Amino column For other modes of chromatography, ion exchange columns, gel columns, chiral columns, affinity chromatographic columns, etc. are available. 6. Detectors [7,9,10] Detectors used depend upon the property of the compounds to be separated. Different detectors available are UV detector: This detector is based upon the light absorption characteristics of the sample. Two types of this detector are available. One is the fixed wavelength detector, which operates at 254nm where most drug compounds absorb. The other is the variable wavelength detector, which can be operated from 190nm to 600nm. Refractive index detector: This is a non-specific or universal detector. This is not much used for analytical applications because of low sensitivity and specificity. Flourimetric detector: This detector is based on the fluorescent radiation emitted by some class of compounds. The exitation wavelength and emission wavelength can be selected for each compound. This detector has more specificity and sensitivity. The disadvantage is that some compounds are not fluorescent. Conductivity detector: Based upon electrical conductivity, the response is recorded. This detector is used when the sample has conducting ions like anions and cations. Amperometric detector: This detector is based on the reduction or oxidation of the compounds when a potential is applied. The diffusion current recorded is proportional to the concentration of the compound eluted. This is applicable when compounds have functional groups, which can be either oxidised or reduced. This is a highly sensitive detector. Photodiode array detector (PDA detector): This is a recent one, which is similar to UV detector, which operates from 190 600nm. Radiations of all wavelengths fall on the detector simultaneously. The resulting spectrum is a 3-D or three-dimensional plot of Response Vs Time Vs Wavelength. The advantage is that the wavelength need not be selected, but the detector detects the responses of all the compounds. 7. Recorders and integrators Recorders: They are used to record the responses obtained from detectors after amplification, if necessary. They record the baseline and all the peaks obtained, with respect to time. Retention time for all the peaks can be found out from such recordings, but the area of individual peaks cannot be known. Integrators: Integrators are improved version of recorders with some data processing capabilities. They can record the individual peaks with retention time, height, and width of peaks, peak area, percentage of area, etc. Integrators provide more information on peaks than recorders. Now a days computers and printers are used for recording and processing the obtained data and for controlling several operations. 2.5 Parameters used in HPLC [7, 9, 10] Retention time (Rt): Retention time is the difference in the time between the point of injection and appearance of peak maxima. Retention time is the time required for 50% of a component to be eluted from a column. Retention time is measured in minutes or seconds. Retention time is also proportional to the distance moved on a chart paper, which can be measured in cm or mm. Retention volume (Vr): Retention volume is the volume of mobile phase required to elute 50% of the component from the column. It is the product of retention time and flow rate. Retention volume = Retention time x flow rate Separation factor (S): Separation factor is the ratio of partition co-efficient of the two components to be separated. It can be expressed and determined by using the following equation: S = Kb/ Ka = Ka/ Kb = (tb t0)/ (ta t0) Where, t0 = Retention time of unretained substance Kb, Ka= Partition coefficients of b and a tb, ta = Retention time of substance b and a S = depends on liquid phase, column temperature If there is more difference in partition coefficient between two compounds, the peaks are far apart and the separation factor is more. If the partition coefficients of two compounds are similar, then the peaks are closer and the separation factor is less. Resolution: Resolution is a measure of the extent of separation of two components and the baseline separation achieved. It can be determined by using the following formula: Rs = 2 (Rt1 Rt2)/ (W1 +W2) Theoretical plate (Plate theory): A theoretical plate is an imaginary or hypothetical unit of a column where distribution of solute between stationary phase and mobile phase has attained equilibrium. A theoretical plate can also be called as a functional unit of the column. HETP Height Equivalent to a Theoritical Plate [18, 7] A theoretical plate can be of any height, which decides the efficiency of separation. If HETP is less, the column is more efficient. If HETP is more, the column is less efficient. HETP can be calculated by using the following formula: HETP = length of the column/ number of theoretical plates HETP is given by Van Deemter equation HETP = A + (B/u ) + Cu Where, A = Eddy diffusion term or multiple path diffusion which arises due to packing of the column. This is unaffected by mobile phase velocity or flow rate. This can be minimised by uniformity in packing. B = Longitudinal diffusion term or molecular diffusion which depends on flow rate. C = Effect of mass transfer which depends on flow rate. u = Flow rate or velocity of the mobile phase. A column is efficient only when HETP is minimum. Hence an ideal flow rate corresponding to the minimum value of HETP is used. Efficiency (No. of theoretical plates): The number of theoretical plates expresses efficiency of a column. It can be determined by using the formula: n = 16 Rt ²/w ² Where, n = no. of theoretical plates Rt = retention time w = peak width at base Rt and w are measured in common units (mm or cm or minutes or seconds) and are proportional to the distances marked on chart paper. If the number of theoretical plates is high, the column is said to be highly efficient. If the number of theoretical plates is low, the column is said to be less efficient. For gas chromatographic columns, a value of 600/ metre is sufficient. But in HPLC, high values like 40,000 to 70,000/ metre are recommended. Asymmetry factor: A chromatographic peak should be symmetrical about its centre and said to follow Gaussian distribution. In such cases, the peak will be like an isosceles triangle. But in practice, due to some factors, the peak is not symmetrical and shows tailing or fronting. Fronting is due to saturation of stationary phase and can be avoided by using less quantity of sample. Tailing is due to more active adsorption sites and can be eliminated by support pre-treatment, more polar mobile phased increasing the amount of liquid phase. Asymmetry factor (0.95 to 1.05) can be calculated by using the formula: AF = b/a (b and a calculated at 5% or 10% of the peak height) 2.6 Applications of HPLC HPLC is being more widely used in several fields. Apart from its use in Pharmaceutical field, it is used in Chemical and Petrochemical industry, Environmental applications, Forensic applications, Biochemical separations, Biotechnology, Food analysis, etc. In fact there is no field where HPLC is not being used. It is a versatile and sensitive technique, which can be used in several ways. Some of them are listed below: Qualitative analysis: It is nothing but identification of compound. This is done by comparing the retention time of the sample as well as the standard. Under identical conditions, the retention time of the standard and the sample are same. If there is a deviation, then they are not the same compound. Checking the purity of the compound: By comparing the chromatogram of the standard and that of the sample, the purity of the compound can be inferred. If additional peaks are obtained, impurities are present and hence the compound is not pure. From the percentage area of the peaks obtained, the percentage purity can also be known. Presence of impurities: This can be seen by the presence of additional peaks when compared with a reference standard or reference material. The percentage of impurities may also be calculated from peak areas. Quantitative analysis: The quantity of a component can be determined by several methods like a. Direct comparison method By injecting a sample and standard separately and comparing their peak areas, the quantity of the sample can be determined. Area of the peak = peak height x width of peak at the half height A1/ A2 = a (W1/ W2) Where, A1 and A2 are peak area of sample and standard W1 and W2 are weight or concentration of sample and standard a is the response factor b. Calibration curve method: In calibration curve method, series of standards are used to determine their peak areas. A calibration curve of peak area Vs concentration of the drug is plotted. From the peak area of the unknown sample, by intrapolation, the concentration of the sample can be determined. This method has the advantage that errors, if any, are minimised. Internal standard method: In this method, a compound with similar retention characteristics is used. A known concentration of the internal standard is added to the sample solution whose concentration is not known. The chromatogram is recorded and their peak areas are determined. By using formula, the concentration of unknown solution is determined. Multicomponent analysis or Determination of mixture of drugs: Similar to the quantification of a single drug, multicomponent analysis can be done easily. The quantity of each component is determined by using any one of the above methods. Marketed formulations, which contain several drugs, can be determined quantitatively for each component. Isolation and identification of drugs or metabolites in urine, plasma, serum, etc. can be carried out. Isolation and identification of mixture of components of natural or synthetic origin. Biopharmaceutical and Pharmacokinetic studies. Stability studies. Purification of some compounds of natural or synthetic origin on preparative scale. 2.7 Limitations: [7, 10] The limitations of HPLC are that drugs have to be extracted from their formulations prior to analysis and large amounts of organic solvent waste are generated which are expensive to dispose off. CHAPTER 3 Experimental Selection 3.1 Aim of Project: The aim of this project was to carry out the quantitative determination of the active pharmaceutical ingredient aloin and aloe-emodin in the given Aloe Vera Colax tablets, manufactured by Aloe Pura laboratories and to compare the results with the given standard aloin and aloe-emodin. The technique used for analysis was reverse phase High Performance Liquid Chromatography method. The analysis was performed using standard calibration curve generated at 220 and 296nm wavelength. 3.2 Chromatographic equipment and conditions: All the chromatographic equipments and conditions, which were used to perform HPLC in a laboratory environment under simulated GLP compliance conditions, are listed below. 3.2.1 HPLC system 5 (used for isocratic elution): This system is manufactured by Agilent technologies 1200 series, whose model number is G1310A and the serial number is DE 62956545 3.2.2 Software used: The software used was Microsoft windows XP, Pentium D whose product number is G 2175 BA, revision code is B. 03. 01 and its registration number is CL1CE8DB0F 3.2.3 Column used: The column used was Kromasil 5C18 whose test number is 9203- 10344 3.2.4 Pipette used: The pipette used was Volac ultra (made in U.K.), S. No. 29186, Model: R680/ F, 0-1000 mL and Volac ultra (made in U.K.), S.No. 29185, Model: R680/ F, 500-5000 mL. 3.2.5 Analytical Balance: Mettler balance AC 88 was used to weigh the sample drug whose Biom